A pedant chronicler has noted that during its tumultuous history Belgrade had been destroyed exactly forty six times. The city had been reduced to ruins by the passing armies of the foe and friend alike, and further ravaged by the passage of time.
Of its destruction, everything is known. It is history. And precisely because of this history, composed of wars, large and small, it has almost been forgotten that Belgrade had been built at least as many times as it has been torn down. Sometimes, it rose again from the ashes, and sometimes it was only dolled-up, with make-up covering its scars which go along with every important historic personality of such stature and standing.
An aesthetics-minded hair splitter may note that the city is, in fact, a huge mish-mash of styles and architectural epochs, wherein a normal person can hardly sort anything out. But Belgrade finds beauty precisely in this diversity. To them, the Baroque perfection and monumentality of a Vienna and a Budapest are somewhat monotonous, the gleam of Paris a mere indiscretion, while Manhattan makes them immediately thinks of elevators…
At the beginning of the 20th century Belgrade started slowly changing from an oriental town – “the last caravan-saray” of the once powerful Ottoman Empire – into a European city. Anticipating future trends, Serbian Prince Milos Obrenovic embarked on the first city zoning mission. The Prince Milos Street, the main Belgrade thoroughfare, does not, therefore, bear his name only by accident: the Prince had really laid out this busy street himself, and it was partly built during his lifetime.
The features of oriental architecture entirely disappeared in the second half of the 19th century, especially after the Turks departure from Serbia. At the time, Belgrade became a Mecca for builders and architects from Italy, Germany, Austria, and Hungary. Each of them left his mark on the capital’s architecture. The most important works of the period have by now almost entirely disappeared from various tour books, but the Serb school of architecture – whose traces survive into the present – its origins then.
This school – of native Serb genius coupled with foreign experience and expertise – involves a beauty tailored to fit the city’s size (and the investor’s wallets, of course), achieving a splendor still to be recognized in the granite facades of the Kneza Mihajla street, the city’s most beautiful pedestrian mall. Some may object by saying that this beauty is merely cosmetics, and that solely the fronts of the ornate buildings have been preserved. But even the awareness that the beauty of happier days may and must be preserved is a sign of spiritual health.
It is a beauty not perceived by many. Much like any other international center, Belgrade is also divided into three horizons, or levels. As of recently, it has begun to grow downwards: fabulous business and shopping malls and train stations have been appearing underground. The street level is made pretty by the cordial smiles and the beauty of the city’s female inhabitants, by the glow of shops windows, and by the greenish patina coating the old monuments. The third horizon consists of the facades and the pigeons. Nowadays, however, in the hustle and bustle of our age, there are not too many Belgrade inhabitants – or even visitors – who can spare a glance and have the patience to enjoy the rich mixture of this everlasting city’s styles. Hence this testimony recorded by the camera.
Showing posts with label Serbia. Show all posts
Showing posts with label Serbia. Show all posts
Thursday, November 11, 2010
Sunday, November 7, 2010
Novi Sad, Serbia
Historians include this city among the younger ones as it was founded 300 years ago, or more precisely in 1694, although the first archaeological sites relive the traces of settlements back to 3000 years BC. The first inhabitants were 12 soldiers with their service on Petrovaradin Fortress and 20 bakers, butchers and other craftsmen, engaged to meet the needs of the garnison there. Perhaps the history book of Once Sad is not to thick compared to other European cities, but since 1694 the actual bridgehead was built opposite to Petrovaradin Fortress, and around it, on the Danube riverbank where the Petrovaradiniense or Rascianica civitas trans Danubium situate, the suburb of Petrovaradin or Raska town across the Danube – the book is written with the constant struggle and striving for the better, useful nice and peaceful life to the advantage of all citizens, at first those were Serbs, Germans, Yews, Greeks, Hungarians and Cinzars… When you say Novi Sad you think of the crossroads of all highways, the centre of the largest river cin this part of Europe – Danube, protected and enriched with beauties of Fruska Gora – Wholly Pannonia – the foundation of the Orthodox religious spirit in the North, the city in which you can see the time from far away buy with no haste, the city of wide boulevards and winding streets – the network with which you can feel each of its quarts, the city of candelabras, special windows, wine and wine cellars, jazz, al sort of clubs, the irresistible Vojvodina cuisine, the city of galleries, off theatres and cinemas, memento collections, monuments, bust and large gates, University and traditional education centre with 13 faculties and colleges, sports treasury with over 200 organizations on land and water, the city of artists and numerous ateliers, the city of congresses and expos..
Sunday, October 24, 2010
Jewellery as part of Serbian national costume
Jewellery is a universal part of human culture; its individuality – social, ethnic and personal – lies only in how its universalness responds to the traditional aesthetic rules and values typical of a particular group, nation or individual.
In view of this, the jewellery loosely defined as Serbian denotes ornaments that were worn (though not necessarily made) in the lands inhabited by the Serbian people. The jewellery was there for adornment, as well as an obligatory part of the traditional dress. The national costume has undergone a series of transformations over the centuries, to go out of use completely in the mid XX century. Fate has decreed that both national costumes to live in museum collections, as carefully guarded valuables, cultural wealth whose historical and financial value cannot be estimated by conventional standards.
Serbian national jewellery was extremely diverse; it differed endlessly in form and shape, in the parts of dress and body which it adorned, in the material it was made from, and it the techniques employed in its manufacture. Some of the ornaments were made at home, from relatively simple materials. However, jewellery properly so-called was made in specialized shops by artisans and craftsmen known as smiths. Smiths made jewellery mostly from silver alloys, often with a thin gold coating. Pieces of coloured glass or more expensive materials, such semi-precious stones, pearls and coral, were often inlaid for effect.
The techniques used were many and complex: forging, cutting, casting, embossing, lacing, enameling, engraving, enchasing, and many others. The most beautiful jewellery, however, was made in the filigree technique. By twisting thin silver wire, with an almost obligatory addition of ornamental studs, the artisans achieved outstanding decorative effects and wonderfully imaginative forms. This technique was used to make necklaces, bracelets, sashes, rings, hairpins, brooches, ear-rings, belt buckles – in fact, all kinds of jewellery worn by girls and young women, as well as men, though in a far lesser measure. Filigree workshops were to be found in all major centers in Serbia, though the highest quality filigree jewellery, unsurpassed to this day, was certainly made by the masters of Prizren. The filigree tradition in Prizren dates from the distant past. In the 19th century, this town had numerous specialized workshops for the manufacture of filigree jewelerry. However, new times and a gradual abandoning of the traditional way of dress has weakened the interest in old jewellery, affecting the supply and quality of the products and finally leading to the dying out of the craft.
Jewellery was worn on formal occasions: feast days visits to the church and, mostly, weddings. It was the custom to bedeck the bride with a large quantity of different jewellery, not only for adornment, but also as protection against evil believed to threaten the bride on her wedding day, jewellery being considered to have magical properties. Greatest attention was devoted to decorating the woman’s head: on the forehead was worn a complicated headdress held in place at the back of the head by hairpins, and the ears were hung with massive earrings. Across the chest were worn strings of chains enchased with coins, at the waist, a webbing belt with silver plates, and rings on the fingers and bracelets on the wrists.
Men’s jewellery, although much less luxurious in terms of variety, was no less beautiful than the women’s. The best known men’s adornments were massive, richly enchased filigree watch-chains worn by well-to-do town tradesmen visibly displayed across the chest; above all hung chains made of row upon row of gilded silver plates, adorned with rosettes, huge metal studs and braids – unique jewellery in kind and look, whose origin is the subject of many ancient legends.
The aesthetic and artistic value of traditional Serbian folk jewellery lies in the endless wealth of form and design. Although there are typical repetitions, each individual artifact is still unique in itself, with its own distinctive stamp bestowed by a detail which makes it an original and inimitable work of art. Some of these pieces of jewellery could take their place alongside the choicest products of the goldsmith industry in the world and be an asset in any elite jewellery collection in Europe and the world.
In view of this, the jewellery loosely defined as Serbian denotes ornaments that were worn (though not necessarily made) in the lands inhabited by the Serbian people. The jewellery was there for adornment, as well as an obligatory part of the traditional dress. The national costume has undergone a series of transformations over the centuries, to go out of use completely in the mid XX century. Fate has decreed that both national costumes to live in museum collections, as carefully guarded valuables, cultural wealth whose historical and financial value cannot be estimated by conventional standards.
Serbian national jewellery was extremely diverse; it differed endlessly in form and shape, in the parts of dress and body which it adorned, in the material it was made from, and it the techniques employed in its manufacture. Some of the ornaments were made at home, from relatively simple materials. However, jewellery properly so-called was made in specialized shops by artisans and craftsmen known as smiths. Smiths made jewellery mostly from silver alloys, often with a thin gold coating. Pieces of coloured glass or more expensive materials, such semi-precious stones, pearls and coral, were often inlaid for effect.
The techniques used were many and complex: forging, cutting, casting, embossing, lacing, enameling, engraving, enchasing, and many others. The most beautiful jewellery, however, was made in the filigree technique. By twisting thin silver wire, with an almost obligatory addition of ornamental studs, the artisans achieved outstanding decorative effects and wonderfully imaginative forms. This technique was used to make necklaces, bracelets, sashes, rings, hairpins, brooches, ear-rings, belt buckles – in fact, all kinds of jewellery worn by girls and young women, as well as men, though in a far lesser measure. Filigree workshops were to be found in all major centers in Serbia, though the highest quality filigree jewellery, unsurpassed to this day, was certainly made by the masters of Prizren. The filigree tradition in Prizren dates from the distant past. In the 19th century, this town had numerous specialized workshops for the manufacture of filigree jewelerry. However, new times and a gradual abandoning of the traditional way of dress has weakened the interest in old jewellery, affecting the supply and quality of the products and finally leading to the dying out of the craft.
Jewellery was worn on formal occasions: feast days visits to the church and, mostly, weddings. It was the custom to bedeck the bride with a large quantity of different jewellery, not only for adornment, but also as protection against evil believed to threaten the bride on her wedding day, jewellery being considered to have magical properties. Greatest attention was devoted to decorating the woman’s head: on the forehead was worn a complicated headdress held in place at the back of the head by hairpins, and the ears were hung with massive earrings. Across the chest were worn strings of chains enchased with coins, at the waist, a webbing belt with silver plates, and rings on the fingers and bracelets on the wrists.
Men’s jewellery, although much less luxurious in terms of variety, was no less beautiful than the women’s. The best known men’s adornments were massive, richly enchased filigree watch-chains worn by well-to-do town tradesmen visibly displayed across the chest; above all hung chains made of row upon row of gilded silver plates, adorned with rosettes, huge metal studs and braids – unique jewellery in kind and look, whose origin is the subject of many ancient legends.
The aesthetic and artistic value of traditional Serbian folk jewellery lies in the endless wealth of form and design. Although there are typical repetitions, each individual artifact is still unique in itself, with its own distinctive stamp bestowed by a detail which makes it an original and inimitable work of art. Some of these pieces of jewellery could take their place alongside the choicest products of the goldsmith industry in the world and be an asset in any elite jewellery collection in Europe and the world.
Monday, August 2, 2010
Nis Fortress, Serbia
In both Serbian and international political plans, the liberation of Nis in the First Serbian Uprising (1804–1813) was a major event in the restoration of the Serbian state. The decisive battle between the Serbs and the Turks took place on 31st May 1809, in the vicinity of Nis, near the village of Kamenica, on a hill known as Cegar, where the Serbian positions were most exposed. Unable to halt the Turkish attack, the Serbian military leader Stevan Sindjelic fired a number of shots into the powder magazine and caused an explosion which killed numerous soldiers on both sides. Unofficial data claim that between 3000 and 7000 Serbs and over 6000 Turks were killed on Cegar. Serbian losses were tremendous, so Cegar today has a special position in the history of the struggle for liberation and independence. Today’s tower-shaped monument was erected in 1927 – it symbolizes a military fortification and is protected by the state as part of the cultural heritage.
Nis Fortress was built in the period 1719-1723 on the right bank of the Nisava River, over the remains of ancient and medieval fortifications, after such decree was issued by the Sultan on 19th February 1719, and the project made by the main architects Mehmed and Mustafa Aga. Like other artillery fortifications, the fortress has a polygonal foundation and four major gates (labeled the gates of Istanbul, Belgrade, Jagodina and Vidin) and eight bastion terraces. With its ramparts totaling 2100m in length, 3m wide and 8m high, covering the area of 22 hectares, the Fortress was the strongest Turkish fortification in borderline areas of the empire. Today’s remnants of the rampart and the gates, along with still unexplored internal parts coming from the previous periods, represent a major cultural monument. For this reason, in 1948, Nis Fortress was protected by the law, and in 1979 it was proclaimed highly valued part of cultural heritage.
Just by the road to Constantinople, today in the city itself, there lies the Skull Tower – a unique monument from Serbian liberation wars. In his desire to intimidate Christians and prevent any further rebellious attempts, Hursid Pasha, then the Turkish commander in Nis, and later the Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire, issued an order for this tower to be built. The skulls of 952 Serbian fighters from the battle of Cegar, of 31st May 1809, were built in. there are no written Turkish sources on the construction of the tower and the number of skulls. The Europe and the world got to know more about it from the words of travel book writers passing through Nis in 19th century.
Nis Fortress was built in the period 1719-1723 on the right bank of the Nisava River, over the remains of ancient and medieval fortifications, after such decree was issued by the Sultan on 19th February 1719, and the project made by the main architects Mehmed and Mustafa Aga. Like other artillery fortifications, the fortress has a polygonal foundation and four major gates (labeled the gates of Istanbul, Belgrade, Jagodina and Vidin) and eight bastion terraces. With its ramparts totaling 2100m in length, 3m wide and 8m high, covering the area of 22 hectares, the Fortress was the strongest Turkish fortification in borderline areas of the empire. Today’s remnants of the rampart and the gates, along with still unexplored internal parts coming from the previous periods, represent a major cultural monument. For this reason, in 1948, Nis Fortress was protected by the law, and in 1979 it was proclaimed highly valued part of cultural heritage.
Just by the road to Constantinople, today in the city itself, there lies the Skull Tower – a unique monument from Serbian liberation wars. In his desire to intimidate Christians and prevent any further rebellious attempts, Hursid Pasha, then the Turkish commander in Nis, and later the Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire, issued an order for this tower to be built. The skulls of 952 Serbian fighters from the battle of Cegar, of 31st May 1809, were built in. there are no written Turkish sources on the construction of the tower and the number of skulls. The Europe and the world got to know more about it from the words of travel book writers passing through Nis in 19th century.
Monday, April 6, 2009
Smederevo
Smederevo is located on the south coast of the Panonian see and on the north-east slopes of Sumadija hills. It is surrounded by the Danube in the north and by the Velika Morava in the east. This area is under the influence of mild continental climate, the average annual temperature is 11-12 C. Dominant wind is Kosava. The town consists of 27 rural and 11 urban communities. The total area is 480 km2 and it has 110.000 inhabitants of which about 65.000 live in the central town area.
Diversified town traffic net enables good connectivity of Smederevo with its road, railway and water lines. Smederevo is 45 km away from Belgrade. The town is connected to Belgrade and to the north of the country by its railway, and to the south parts of the country through Mala Krsna. There is a highway that runs through Smederevo, it is 30 km long.
Smederevo is one of the oldest settlements in the Serbian District Podunavlje. The settlement which was located on the current position of Smederevo was mentioned for the first time in 1019 in the charter of Byzantine Emperor, Vasilije II, and the present name of Smederevo is mentioned in 1381 in the charter of Monastery Ravanica. In the 15th century Despot Djuradj Brankovic chose this very place on the Danube to be capital of the Serbian state. In the period between 1428 and 1430 “mali grad” was built as a ruler’s castle at the lower end of the river Jezava into the Danube, and then looking up to the Fortress of Carigrad the construction of “Veliki grad” on an area of 10,5 ha was continued in the period between 1430 and 1439. During the time of Despot’s reign Smederevo was the centre of political, economical and cultural life of Medieval Serbia. In the beginning of the 20th Smederevo’s opulent agricultural area with significant production of fruits and wines with the famous “Smederevo’s vineyard”, its excellent geographic position on the Danube and growing trade made the basis of its further development.
Many events take place in Smederevo during the whole year and certainly the most important of them is “Smederevo’s autumn”. This touristic and business manifestation take place every year at the end of September, it is devoted to fruits of autumn (fruits, grapes and vine) with carnival of medieval knights and a rich cultural and artistic program. One cannot talk about Smederevo without mentioning “Smederevka”, one of leading autochthonous types of grapes from Smederevo’s vineyard. Presence of vines on Smederevo’s area date from ancient history. Illyrian, Thracians and Celtic tribes were raising grapes in these areas before the arrival of Roman conquerors who forbid raising grapes in provinces on Balkan during the emperor Domitian. Marcus Aurelius Probe abolished this prohibition and started, with soldiers from his legions to plant vines again on these areas. After the prohibition, numerous conquers and wars, viticulture and growing of Smederevka still keep the Smederevo’s tradition. Many people wrote about their grapes and wines but the name Smederevka as the name of the brand can be found in written sources from the 19th century. From 1879 merchants from European countries are buying wine from Smederevo and selling it in Switzerland, France and other countries. In 1882 on World Fair in Bordeaux, wines from Smederevo received significant recognition. Winegrowers from Smederevo still keep the tradition of growing Smederevka and still produce quality wines that can be tasted in their cellars.
If you are visiting Smederevo, don’t miss the following tourist’s destinations and historical and cultural monuments:
Smederevo’s Fortress (Serbian capital from 15th century, the biggest plain fortress in Europe)
Museum in Smederevo (learn about Smederevo’s history from ancient times until today)
The main city square (in this area are many cultural and historical monuments)
Orthodox temple of St George (the third biggest temple in Serbia, built as a Monastery Manasija)
Community Court building
Former Community House building
Assumption of Holy Mother of God Church (built in 15th century, is on Smederevo’s old cemetery, and it is believed that it was the family tomb and the church of Despot Djuradj Brankovic.
Diversified town traffic net enables good connectivity of Smederevo with its road, railway and water lines. Smederevo is 45 km away from Belgrade. The town is connected to Belgrade and to the north of the country by its railway, and to the south parts of the country through Mala Krsna. There is a highway that runs through Smederevo, it is 30 km long.
Smederevo is one of the oldest settlements in the Serbian District Podunavlje. The settlement which was located on the current position of Smederevo was mentioned for the first time in 1019 in the charter of Byzantine Emperor, Vasilije II, and the present name of Smederevo is mentioned in 1381 in the charter of Monastery Ravanica. In the 15th century Despot Djuradj Brankovic chose this very place on the Danube to be capital of the Serbian state. In the period between 1428 and 1430 “mali grad” was built as a ruler’s castle at the lower end of the river Jezava into the Danube, and then looking up to the Fortress of Carigrad the construction of “Veliki grad” on an area of 10,5 ha was continued in the period between 1430 and 1439. During the time of Despot’s reign Smederevo was the centre of political, economical and cultural life of Medieval Serbia. In the beginning of the 20th Smederevo’s opulent agricultural area with significant production of fruits and wines with the famous “Smederevo’s vineyard”, its excellent geographic position on the Danube and growing trade made the basis of its further development.
Many events take place in Smederevo during the whole year and certainly the most important of them is “Smederevo’s autumn”. This touristic and business manifestation take place every year at the end of September, it is devoted to fruits of autumn (fruits, grapes and vine) with carnival of medieval knights and a rich cultural and artistic program. One cannot talk about Smederevo without mentioning “Smederevka”, one of leading autochthonous types of grapes from Smederevo’s vineyard. Presence of vines on Smederevo’s area date from ancient history. Illyrian, Thracians and Celtic tribes were raising grapes in these areas before the arrival of Roman conquerors who forbid raising grapes in provinces on Balkan during the emperor Domitian. Marcus Aurelius Probe abolished this prohibition and started, with soldiers from his legions to plant vines again on these areas. After the prohibition, numerous conquers and wars, viticulture and growing of Smederevka still keep the Smederevo’s tradition. Many people wrote about their grapes and wines but the name Smederevka as the name of the brand can be found in written sources from the 19th century. From 1879 merchants from European countries are buying wine from Smederevo and selling it in Switzerland, France and other countries. In 1882 on World Fair in Bordeaux, wines from Smederevo received significant recognition. Winegrowers from Smederevo still keep the tradition of growing Smederevka and still produce quality wines that can be tasted in their cellars.
If you are visiting Smederevo, don’t miss the following tourist’s destinations and historical and cultural monuments:
Smederevo’s Fortress (Serbian capital from 15th century, the biggest plain fortress in Europe)
Museum in Smederevo (learn about Smederevo’s history from ancient times until today)
The main city square (in this area are many cultural and historical monuments)
Orthodox temple of St George (the third biggest temple in Serbia, built as a Monastery Manasija)
Community Court building
Former Community House building
Assumption of Holy Mother of God Church (built in 15th century, is on Smederevo’s old cemetery, and it is believed that it was the family tomb and the church of Despot Djuradj Brankovic.
Thursday, April 17, 2008
Belgrade – the charm of living
The white color symbolized the south, that is, the sun, or light. That is why the Slavs, when they came upon the first town on their way, gave it the name of “the white town”.
Still standing Belgrade
“Happy is the people whose history is boring” said a great European philosopher. The citizens of Belgrade know that the history of their city was all but boring, and feel proud somehow – because their city has been coveted by many conquerors from times immemorial. Even today, the word “boring” is seldom heard in Belgrade.
The history of Belgrade has many layers: a layer of builders and a layer of destroyers, and again… The citizens of Belgrade keep a memory of the history of their home town, feeling proud somehow – because the builders won in the end and Belgrade gets larger and taller by the day.
Sometimes it appears that Belgrade is sprawling uncontrollably, but that is where its charm is: the mixture of styles, people and ideas has created a place where you could be surprised the moment your turn a corner. Both the builders and destroyers from the beginning of our story have left their marks, some of them insufficiently explored: don’t be surprised if you find a gold coin from the last century when walking along a path on Kalemegdan Fortress. That’s Belgrade for you.
There are many places where you can touch and smell history: the Belgrade Fortress on Kalemegdan has been added to for centuries. Everybody added something authentic, something of his own. Today it is a favorite promenade of the citizens of Belgrade and their guests: underground passages, old arches, Clock Tower, Nebojsa Tower, and the hidden, quiet Church of St Paraskewe on the way to the Lower Town. At the same time, from Kalemegdan, you can glance into the future. On top of one of the tallest towers there is an astronomical observatory open all day long and, immediately below it, Planetarium. The stars within your reach.
The streets around Kalemegdan had been cut a couple of centuries ago: King Peter’s Street – with the oldest café in Belgrade, with a funny name of “?”, and the cathedral – was built in the 11th century. A few yards farther, there is the Home of princess Ljubica from the 19th century. That’s Belgrade for you: centuries and eras placed side by side, in perfect harmony. Still, the history of Belgrade is not easy to follow. The city is still growing, changing its skyline and favorite colors: often, old beautiful facades are leaning onto modern buildings whose glass fronts mirror the caryatides. Even more often you’ll find fantastic, modern galleries and cafes inside old backyards. Not far from the National Theater, erected 150 years ago, you can see one of the most modern shopping centers, while the famous Victor monument looks at the Hyatt hotel across the river.
The history of Belgrade can be explored in many directions. No matter what direction you take, you will enjoy it. And you will come again, to hear and see some more of it. To add a line of your town.
Where people play for fun
Do you know how many gold medals, trophies and cups are to be found in Belgrade? Do you know how many champions and record-breakers there are in Belgrade? We haven’t managed to count them all.
In their everyday lives the citizens of Belgrade are real sportsmen: they observe fair play, cheer noisily and protest even more noisily. They are good at team work, but they like to win alone as well. They are not the most disciplined of trainees, but they are always in top physical form. At the same time, they are more knowledgeable about every sport than the national selectors of many a country in the world. Some of them have proved it.
This is a sports city – the host of many world, European and Balkan championships in many sports, the city of the winners, but the city that salutes the losers as well.
The first basketball match in Belgrade was played in 1923. The largest number of basketball champions, but also the volleyball champions (the gold medal in the Olympic games of 2000), water-polo champions (European champions in 2001) and handball champions are walking the streets of Belgrade at this moment.
Belgrade was an official candidate for the venue of the 1992 Olympic Games. At that time, many sports facilities for football, basketball, volleyball and handball, but also for water-polo, tennis and gymnastics, were either reconstructed or built from scratch. Not to forget table-tennis, shooting, athletics and martial arts facilities. At the same time, the city has gone “down to the river” by the construction of a number of extended bicycle tracks and by a “tidying over” of Ada Ciganlija, the large river island that has been connected with the mainland. Ada has been specially prepared: basketball courts, football and handball fields, beach-ball courts, rowing, bicycle tracks, free climbing, rollercoaster, bungee jump. They have even a couple of rugby teams. With the winning of the Olympic medals the sports activities in Belgrade you will find (at least) an Olympic size swimming pool, indoor or outdoor tennis court, miniature football fields, basketball and handball court or a modern gym. The citizens of Belgrade will tell you, jokingly, that every city blocks in Belgrade has a sports hall or at least a stadium seating all the citizens of the block. The largest stadium in Belgrade seats 60.000. The Pionir sports hall, the venue of many a fantastic and dramatic finals, offers 7.000 seats.
Belgrade is the host of many sports festivals: every year there is the traditional Belgrade marathon there, and the children marathon. Belgrade is included in the world’s challenge day drive.
Here you can, easily, almost at every corner, come across a group of children who will beat you in street ball, football, beach ball. They will certainly give you an opportunity for revenge, or at least a point of advantage. The citizens of Belgrade love challenge.
Where people live for fun
History tells us that during the Austrian reign there was a law in Belgrade forcing the citizens of Belgrade to attend balls and other festivities under the penalty of a fine. But, that’s history.
In the first half of the 80s, one of the favorite souvenirs that the citizens of Belgrade presented to their guests was a completely black picture postcard, with the letters Belgrade by Night written on it. That’s Belgrade sense of humor. But, that’s history. Belgrade is awake. The friends and the guests of Belgrade often say that Belgrade by night is unlike its daily edition: some of the citizens of Belgrade are only to be seen at night.
The night life begins, in fact, already in the afternoon: every evening an exhibition is opened in downtown Belgrade, or a promotion is held. You will meet all those people, always ready for new trends and streams, at least once again during the evening. Not because Belgrade is a small town, but because an average citizen of Belgrade, who wants to see everything he wants to see in a single evening, spends no more than twenty minutes at a given place. Then he moves on. That’s rhythm for you.
Start toward Skadarlija first, the old bohemian part of the city still jealous of its charm. The Skadarlija Street is the place where some of the most beautiful verses of their poetry were composed. Many world-famous writers grew up there; many a great story was first told there.
They are proud of their cuisine: in the last couple of centuries, from each guest or conqueror they took best he had and built it into their menus. You can’t say you’ve been to Belgrade unless you have tried “pljeskavica”, “kajmak”, “riblja cobra” or “pecenje”.
Belgrade has been fostering the tradition of the good classical jazz for almost forty years now. Jazz clubs are still numerous and most of them offer live music every evening. At the same time, their DJs are always in the know: everything you could hear in a London club or at a concert in Paris last night you hear in Belgrade tonight.
Every place has a feature and a charm of its own, and you can never know which one will be “in” tomorrow. So, book your seat in time.
The touch of Belgrade
The artist of Belgrade often leaves Belgrade, but for a short time only. They say there is so much inspiration here they have to escape it for a time, to let the impressions settle down. During their stay away from Belgrade, they conquer the world with their works and return home as if nothing has happened. They still sit in their favorite cafes; they still buy bread from the same baker and associate with the same friends.
Everyday, in Belgrade, a couple of new exhibitions are opened, or new books, journals or conceptualist artist promoted.
The local cultural scene has often been in the lead: Atelje 212 is the first theater in Eastern Europe that had Samuel Beckett’s Waiting for Godot on its repertoire in 1956. In the 60s, it was there that BITEF (the Belgrade International Theater Festival) was born. It is still going strong. For decades now, the National Theater, one of the oldest theaters in these parts, has been staging quality and interesting classical plays, ballet and opera performances, in cooperation with the home and foreign directors, artists, singers. At the same time, the home writers have always had their chance on the stage of the Belgrade Drama Theater, the Center for Cultural Decontamination and the BITEF avant-garde theater. The local scene is the Great Mess where the world’s great names, such as Emir Kusturica, Dusan Kovacevic, Goran Paskaljevic, Biljana Srbljanovic, Vladimir Velickovic, as well as the names of some new, young artists that you will as yet hear about, are constantly circulating. This city is proud of having been the place where Ivo Andric, the winner of the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1961, as well as Borislav Pekic, Mica Popovic, Danilo Kis and Nadezda Petrovic, have lived for a time.
The Belgrade Film Archive, with a film showing theater of its own, is the largest film archive in Europe and the world. Also: the seats of the theater are very same seats used by film directors and actors whose works have changed the course of film history.
Belgrade is, at the same time, a festival city: International Short-Length and Animated Film Festival, FEST, BEMUS, the BITEF Festival of New Theatrical trends; the Low-Fi Film Festival, BRAMS. Each festival is an important event for the city.
The Museum of Modern Art, Museum of Applied Art, National Museum, Nikola Tesla museum, Ethnographic Museum, Automobile Museum, Railway Museum, Yugoslav Gallery, the Gallery of Science and Art, Theater Museum – these are the places you must pay a visit to. Don’t forget – entry into Belgrade galleries is free. Art can be accessed by everyone. One thing is certain: should Belgrade recognize an artist, you can be certain that very soon the whole world will recognize him. Here you have a unique chance of foreseeing the future.
Belgrade is one of the spiritual centers of the Balkans: the Temple of St Sava in Vracar is one of the largest Orthodox temples in the world and one of the largest projects Belgrade has recently undertaken and accomplished. At the same time, many small, sometimes even hidden churches, like the Church of St Paraskewe on Kalemegdan, beautiful painted with frescoes, give a complete picture of the spirituality and tradition of the people and of Belgrade. The Cathedral, one of the best known symbols of Belgrade, was built as early as 1837. On the other side of the street is the Serbian Patriarchate, the spiritual and religious center of Serbia. The Orthodox religion, known in the world as the Orthodox Christianity, is the dominant religion in these parts. The amalgamation of the Orthodox Christian thought, the Byzantine culture and the Slav soul can be experienced in the smallest of temples, gazing into the frescoes of rulers and saints, painted over the centuries.
Talk to Belgrade
One of the most often used phrases of the citizens of Belgrade is “No problem”. People with this attitude, although it may sound paradoxical, can really accomplish a lot.
In recent years, Belgrade has erected, established or renovated, a considerable number of congress halls, media centers, Internet cafes and the media meeting the world standards: Center Sava, Intercontinental and Hyatt Regency are some of the most often visited places in town.
Many of their business partners from abroad, many delegations, friends of Belgrade and Serbia, are convinced they are capable of organizing every meeting or gathering at the world level. That’s why they are in Belgrade now, investing into new business. Many world-famous companies have decided to place their representative offices for Eastern Europe in the true sense of the world. Great companies, like Microsoft, for instance, are the partners of their Government and governmental institutions, seated in Belgrade.
The Belgrade Fair is still one of the largest in the region. Every second or third week, managers, manufacturers and partners from all over the world gather there presenting achievements in the areas of technology, electronics, fashion, agriculture or publishing. During the winter these activities are arrested for a while and the Fair hands over its exhibition halls to the big, traditional Winter Fair and the laughter children.
The citizens of Belgrade don’t care much long-lasting meeting. They love challenge, problems, quick agreement and objectives setting. After that, they like to celebrate the agreed-upon deal. The way it’s done in Belgrade, of course. Don’t be surprised if the only answer you get is “No problem”. That’s the way it is, as each and every problem can be solved.
Business news spreads quickly: one always knows the best man for the particular job – and who to avoid having anything to do with. But the latter cannot survive in Belgrade for long; the city soon reject them, shakes them off and offers new, better quality people.
This is a university city of unbelievable potential: every year, thousands of students get their college diplomas. These young people are completely ready for work and cooperation with the world. At this very moment, many of them are winning awards at prestigious competitions as designers, programmers or scientist.
The ex students of Belgrade, the people of world today, who had spent several past years abroad, specializing in their fields of interest, are returning to their city, Belgrade, with the intention of showing the world how a modern city, the city with a soul, can do business and function. This is what they are showing you at the moment.
Find your Belgrade
The streets of Belgrade are full of people, day or night. The citizens of Belgrade are ready to work all night so they can start, from early in the morning, strolling around the city, seeing friends, taking and exchange ideas - “listen to the idea that will change the world” – and then implement the ideas.
You cannot explore Belgrade in a few days. It slips away, hiding a thing or two internationally. This is why people return to it, a number of times. Next time it will be different, larger, and taller. In the meantime, it’ll change some habits, perfect some others.
Find your own favorite place in Belgrade. Don’t be satisfied with a recommendation only – often the citizens of Belgrade are not even aware of their beautiful, quiet places, radiating warmth and harmony. They are not aware of them because they have become accustomed to them – they see them every day. So, make your own choice: the Kalemegdan Fortress, Skadarlija, Tasmajdan, Kosutnjak, Avala – the last one outside the city limits, an excellent place to relax – the Zoo, Ada Ciganlija, Senjak, the Sibinjanin Janko Tower in Zemun, Gardos – these are just few of the places, city blocks you must visit to get the feel of Belgrade. The Belgrade marketplaces; flower shops; bakers, wine cellars – all of them give each new day a special exotic fragrance. And a different fragrance every day.
The shopping centers; shopping malls where you will always find the latest in world fashion; bookstores; galleries; museums; theaters; antique-shops full of their, but also foreign, history; churches; temples; parks.
The Belgrade multiplex and regular cinemas are almost always full – the citizens of Belgrade gulp the movies, talk about them, see them several times, until the film repartees become a part of everyday slang. The success of a film is not measured by box-office return but by the number of repartees that remain after the film has been forgotten.
And don’t be surprised should a waiter or a salesgirl recognize you after a couple of years, or remember what it was you had ordered or bought last year, the last time you were in Belgrade: the citizens of Belgrade are good at remembering their guests, and even better at remembering their “usual”, and the best at remembering who it was you had come into café or a restaurant with last time.
And remember, the moment you master “hello, how are you? Feel like a cup of coffee” in Serbian, you have become a citizen of Belgrade.
Still standing Belgrade
“Happy is the people whose history is boring” said a great European philosopher. The citizens of Belgrade know that the history of their city was all but boring, and feel proud somehow – because their city has been coveted by many conquerors from times immemorial. Even today, the word “boring” is seldom heard in Belgrade.
The history of Belgrade has many layers: a layer of builders and a layer of destroyers, and again… The citizens of Belgrade keep a memory of the history of their home town, feeling proud somehow – because the builders won in the end and Belgrade gets larger and taller by the day.
Sometimes it appears that Belgrade is sprawling uncontrollably, but that is where its charm is: the mixture of styles, people and ideas has created a place where you could be surprised the moment your turn a corner. Both the builders and destroyers from the beginning of our story have left their marks, some of them insufficiently explored: don’t be surprised if you find a gold coin from the last century when walking along a path on Kalemegdan Fortress. That’s Belgrade for you.
There are many places where you can touch and smell history: the Belgrade Fortress on Kalemegdan has been added to for centuries. Everybody added something authentic, something of his own. Today it is a favorite promenade of the citizens of Belgrade and their guests: underground passages, old arches, Clock Tower, Nebojsa Tower, and the hidden, quiet Church of St Paraskewe on the way to the Lower Town. At the same time, from Kalemegdan, you can glance into the future. On top of one of the tallest towers there is an astronomical observatory open all day long and, immediately below it, Planetarium. The stars within your reach.
The streets around Kalemegdan had been cut a couple of centuries ago: King Peter’s Street – with the oldest café in Belgrade, with a funny name of “?”, and the cathedral – was built in the 11th century. A few yards farther, there is the Home of princess Ljubica from the 19th century. That’s Belgrade for you: centuries and eras placed side by side, in perfect harmony. Still, the history of Belgrade is not easy to follow. The city is still growing, changing its skyline and favorite colors: often, old beautiful facades are leaning onto modern buildings whose glass fronts mirror the caryatides. Even more often you’ll find fantastic, modern galleries and cafes inside old backyards. Not far from the National Theater, erected 150 years ago, you can see one of the most modern shopping centers, while the famous Victor monument looks at the Hyatt hotel across the river.
The history of Belgrade can be explored in many directions. No matter what direction you take, you will enjoy it. And you will come again, to hear and see some more of it. To add a line of your town.
Where people play for fun
Do you know how many gold medals, trophies and cups are to be found in Belgrade? Do you know how many champions and record-breakers there are in Belgrade? We haven’t managed to count them all.
In their everyday lives the citizens of Belgrade are real sportsmen: they observe fair play, cheer noisily and protest even more noisily. They are good at team work, but they like to win alone as well. They are not the most disciplined of trainees, but they are always in top physical form. At the same time, they are more knowledgeable about every sport than the national selectors of many a country in the world. Some of them have proved it.
This is a sports city – the host of many world, European and Balkan championships in many sports, the city of the winners, but the city that salutes the losers as well.
The first basketball match in Belgrade was played in 1923. The largest number of basketball champions, but also the volleyball champions (the gold medal in the Olympic games of 2000), water-polo champions (European champions in 2001) and handball champions are walking the streets of Belgrade at this moment.
Belgrade was an official candidate for the venue of the 1992 Olympic Games. At that time, many sports facilities for football, basketball, volleyball and handball, but also for water-polo, tennis and gymnastics, were either reconstructed or built from scratch. Not to forget table-tennis, shooting, athletics and martial arts facilities. At the same time, the city has gone “down to the river” by the construction of a number of extended bicycle tracks and by a “tidying over” of Ada Ciganlija, the large river island that has been connected with the mainland. Ada has been specially prepared: basketball courts, football and handball fields, beach-ball courts, rowing, bicycle tracks, free climbing, rollercoaster, bungee jump. They have even a couple of rugby teams. With the winning of the Olympic medals the sports activities in Belgrade you will find (at least) an Olympic size swimming pool, indoor or outdoor tennis court, miniature football fields, basketball and handball court or a modern gym. The citizens of Belgrade will tell you, jokingly, that every city blocks in Belgrade has a sports hall or at least a stadium seating all the citizens of the block. The largest stadium in Belgrade seats 60.000. The Pionir sports hall, the venue of many a fantastic and dramatic finals, offers 7.000 seats.
Belgrade is the host of many sports festivals: every year there is the traditional Belgrade marathon there, and the children marathon. Belgrade is included in the world’s challenge day drive.
Here you can, easily, almost at every corner, come across a group of children who will beat you in street ball, football, beach ball. They will certainly give you an opportunity for revenge, or at least a point of advantage. The citizens of Belgrade love challenge.
Where people live for fun
History tells us that during the Austrian reign there was a law in Belgrade forcing the citizens of Belgrade to attend balls and other festivities under the penalty of a fine. But, that’s history.
In the first half of the 80s, one of the favorite souvenirs that the citizens of Belgrade presented to their guests was a completely black picture postcard, with the letters Belgrade by Night written on it. That’s Belgrade sense of humor. But, that’s history. Belgrade is awake. The friends and the guests of Belgrade often say that Belgrade by night is unlike its daily edition: some of the citizens of Belgrade are only to be seen at night.
The night life begins, in fact, already in the afternoon: every evening an exhibition is opened in downtown Belgrade, or a promotion is held. You will meet all those people, always ready for new trends and streams, at least once again during the evening. Not because Belgrade is a small town, but because an average citizen of Belgrade, who wants to see everything he wants to see in a single evening, spends no more than twenty minutes at a given place. Then he moves on. That’s rhythm for you.
Start toward Skadarlija first, the old bohemian part of the city still jealous of its charm. The Skadarlija Street is the place where some of the most beautiful verses of their poetry were composed. Many world-famous writers grew up there; many a great story was first told there.
They are proud of their cuisine: in the last couple of centuries, from each guest or conqueror they took best he had and built it into their menus. You can’t say you’ve been to Belgrade unless you have tried “pljeskavica”, “kajmak”, “riblja cobra” or “pecenje”.
Belgrade has been fostering the tradition of the good classical jazz for almost forty years now. Jazz clubs are still numerous and most of them offer live music every evening. At the same time, their DJs are always in the know: everything you could hear in a London club or at a concert in Paris last night you hear in Belgrade tonight.
Every place has a feature and a charm of its own, and you can never know which one will be “in” tomorrow. So, book your seat in time.
The touch of Belgrade
The artist of Belgrade often leaves Belgrade, but for a short time only. They say there is so much inspiration here they have to escape it for a time, to let the impressions settle down. During their stay away from Belgrade, they conquer the world with their works and return home as if nothing has happened. They still sit in their favorite cafes; they still buy bread from the same baker and associate with the same friends.
Everyday, in Belgrade, a couple of new exhibitions are opened, or new books, journals or conceptualist artist promoted.
The local cultural scene has often been in the lead: Atelje 212 is the first theater in Eastern Europe that had Samuel Beckett’s Waiting for Godot on its repertoire in 1956. In the 60s, it was there that BITEF (the Belgrade International Theater Festival) was born. It is still going strong. For decades now, the National Theater, one of the oldest theaters in these parts, has been staging quality and interesting classical plays, ballet and opera performances, in cooperation with the home and foreign directors, artists, singers. At the same time, the home writers have always had their chance on the stage of the Belgrade Drama Theater, the Center for Cultural Decontamination and the BITEF avant-garde theater. The local scene is the Great Mess where the world’s great names, such as Emir Kusturica, Dusan Kovacevic, Goran Paskaljevic, Biljana Srbljanovic, Vladimir Velickovic, as well as the names of some new, young artists that you will as yet hear about, are constantly circulating. This city is proud of having been the place where Ivo Andric, the winner of the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1961, as well as Borislav Pekic, Mica Popovic, Danilo Kis and Nadezda Petrovic, have lived for a time.
The Belgrade Film Archive, with a film showing theater of its own, is the largest film archive in Europe and the world. Also: the seats of the theater are very same seats used by film directors and actors whose works have changed the course of film history.
Belgrade is, at the same time, a festival city: International Short-Length and Animated Film Festival, FEST, BEMUS, the BITEF Festival of New Theatrical trends; the Low-Fi Film Festival, BRAMS. Each festival is an important event for the city.
The Museum of Modern Art, Museum of Applied Art, National Museum, Nikola Tesla museum, Ethnographic Museum, Automobile Museum, Railway Museum, Yugoslav Gallery, the Gallery of Science and Art, Theater Museum – these are the places you must pay a visit to. Don’t forget – entry into Belgrade galleries is free. Art can be accessed by everyone. One thing is certain: should Belgrade recognize an artist, you can be certain that very soon the whole world will recognize him. Here you have a unique chance of foreseeing the future.
Belgrade is one of the spiritual centers of the Balkans: the Temple of St Sava in Vracar is one of the largest Orthodox temples in the world and one of the largest projects Belgrade has recently undertaken and accomplished. At the same time, many small, sometimes even hidden churches, like the Church of St Paraskewe on Kalemegdan, beautiful painted with frescoes, give a complete picture of the spirituality and tradition of the people and of Belgrade. The Cathedral, one of the best known symbols of Belgrade, was built as early as 1837. On the other side of the street is the Serbian Patriarchate, the spiritual and religious center of Serbia. The Orthodox religion, known in the world as the Orthodox Christianity, is the dominant religion in these parts. The amalgamation of the Orthodox Christian thought, the Byzantine culture and the Slav soul can be experienced in the smallest of temples, gazing into the frescoes of rulers and saints, painted over the centuries.
Talk to Belgrade
One of the most often used phrases of the citizens of Belgrade is “No problem”. People with this attitude, although it may sound paradoxical, can really accomplish a lot.
In recent years, Belgrade has erected, established or renovated, a considerable number of congress halls, media centers, Internet cafes and the media meeting the world standards: Center Sava, Intercontinental and Hyatt Regency are some of the most often visited places in town.
Many of their business partners from abroad, many delegations, friends of Belgrade and Serbia, are convinced they are capable of organizing every meeting or gathering at the world level. That’s why they are in Belgrade now, investing into new business. Many world-famous companies have decided to place their representative offices for Eastern Europe in the true sense of the world. Great companies, like Microsoft, for instance, are the partners of their Government and governmental institutions, seated in Belgrade.
The Belgrade Fair is still one of the largest in the region. Every second or third week, managers, manufacturers and partners from all over the world gather there presenting achievements in the areas of technology, electronics, fashion, agriculture or publishing. During the winter these activities are arrested for a while and the Fair hands over its exhibition halls to the big, traditional Winter Fair and the laughter children.
The citizens of Belgrade don’t care much long-lasting meeting. They love challenge, problems, quick agreement and objectives setting. After that, they like to celebrate the agreed-upon deal. The way it’s done in Belgrade, of course. Don’t be surprised if the only answer you get is “No problem”. That’s the way it is, as each and every problem can be solved.
Business news spreads quickly: one always knows the best man for the particular job – and who to avoid having anything to do with. But the latter cannot survive in Belgrade for long; the city soon reject them, shakes them off and offers new, better quality people.
This is a university city of unbelievable potential: every year, thousands of students get their college diplomas. These young people are completely ready for work and cooperation with the world. At this very moment, many of them are winning awards at prestigious competitions as designers, programmers or scientist.
The ex students of Belgrade, the people of world today, who had spent several past years abroad, specializing in their fields of interest, are returning to their city, Belgrade, with the intention of showing the world how a modern city, the city with a soul, can do business and function. This is what they are showing you at the moment.
Find your Belgrade
The streets of Belgrade are full of people, day or night. The citizens of Belgrade are ready to work all night so they can start, from early in the morning, strolling around the city, seeing friends, taking and exchange ideas - “listen to the idea that will change the world” – and then implement the ideas.
You cannot explore Belgrade in a few days. It slips away, hiding a thing or two internationally. This is why people return to it, a number of times. Next time it will be different, larger, and taller. In the meantime, it’ll change some habits, perfect some others.
Find your own favorite place in Belgrade. Don’t be satisfied with a recommendation only – often the citizens of Belgrade are not even aware of their beautiful, quiet places, radiating warmth and harmony. They are not aware of them because they have become accustomed to them – they see them every day. So, make your own choice: the Kalemegdan Fortress, Skadarlija, Tasmajdan, Kosutnjak, Avala – the last one outside the city limits, an excellent place to relax – the Zoo, Ada Ciganlija, Senjak, the Sibinjanin Janko Tower in Zemun, Gardos – these are just few of the places, city blocks you must visit to get the feel of Belgrade. The Belgrade marketplaces; flower shops; bakers, wine cellars – all of them give each new day a special exotic fragrance. And a different fragrance every day.
The shopping centers; shopping malls where you will always find the latest in world fashion; bookstores; galleries; museums; theaters; antique-shops full of their, but also foreign, history; churches; temples; parks.
The Belgrade multiplex and regular cinemas are almost always full – the citizens of Belgrade gulp the movies, talk about them, see them several times, until the film repartees become a part of everyday slang. The success of a film is not measured by box-office return but by the number of repartees that remain after the film has been forgotten.
And don’t be surprised should a waiter or a salesgirl recognize you after a couple of years, or remember what it was you had ordered or bought last year, the last time you were in Belgrade: the citizens of Belgrade are good at remembering their guests, and even better at remembering their “usual”, and the best at remembering who it was you had come into café or a restaurant with last time.
And remember, the moment you master “hello, how are you? Feel like a cup of coffee” in Serbian, you have become a citizen of Belgrade.
Friday, March 14, 2008
Monasteries of Serbia
A Serbian monastery presents some of the most precious sacral monuments of Serbian Orthodox culture. The monasteries we have selected are but a portion of Serbian rich heritage, and came into being over a long period stretching from the 12th to the 20th centuries. Among the monasteries are some that have already become part of world cultural heritage in terms of their beauty and artistic merit, and some that have yet to be revealed to the world.
Monasteries are the fruit of a specific monastic spirit, rooted in medieval religiosity. They were – and remain today – small social communities profoundly devoted to the quest for God, and to special Christian aims. The center of Orthodox Christian monastery is the church (known as the “temple”), where religious services are performed. The most beautiful works of architecture, painting and applied arts are generally associated with the church area, as it is the focal point of daily life. However, it is the beauty of the monastery facilities – too frequently surrounded by massive walls – which invite admiration as well. Monasteries were built on the most picturesque sites, on mayor routes, and almost always near rivers and springs, so that pilgrimage to these holy sites offers travelers the unique pleasure of enjoying nature. The church, quest quarters, library, treasury, and refectory all form a circle within this mystical and divinely-inspired world.
The story about Serbian monasteries begins with the oldest Christian church – St Peter’s Church, in what is today southwestern Serbia. It is believed that the church was built sometime in the 6th or 7th centuries, and it is an established fact that it was an important spiritual center at the time of Stefan Nemanja (12th century), the founder of the illustrious Serbian Nemanjic dynasty. The most beautiful and precious monasteries were built while this dynasty was in power, so that these stylistically specific monasteries and the region in which most of them are located bear a common name – they are known as monuments of the Raska School. The most significant endowment of Stefan Nemanja is the Studenica monastery. In terms of architecture, this monastery – like the majority of others from this area – has features of the Adriatic Littoral Building School. Serbian monasteries bear witness to the interlacing of the distinctly beautiful Eastern and Western styles, and they also reflect the harmony of Byzantine and Western Christian art. The architecture of the Studenica Monastery Church is one of the most beautiful examples of this congruity. Paintings in the interior of the Church of the Mother of God also bear witness to supreme artistic achievements. One of the most famous frescoes is the Crucifixion – a monumental and moving composition. The Studenica monastery is a magnificent example of Serbian building and painting mastery, resulting in the fact that it has been listed as one of UNESCO’s monuments of World Heritage.
Medieval Serbian monasteries are an extraordinary example of the synthesis of the Byzantine and Mediterranean religious cultures. Nonetheless, the Byzantine culture had a decisive influence, which continued on as part of Serbian culture even after the decline and definitive fall of the Byzantine State. The chief spiritual source of medieval Serbian culture is Chilandar Monastery (dating from 12th century) located on Mt Athos in modern day Greece. The founders of Chilandar exerted a crucial influence on all areas of religious, political and cultural life in medieval Serbia.
The period between the 12th century and the latter half of the 14th century was an age in which the Serbian state flourished and became strong. The reigning Nemanjic family, and later patrician families, devoted great attention to setting up endowments. Deeply devoted to Christianity, and by way of building churches and monasteries, they spread the faith among the people, encouraged literacy and learning, enhanced Church organization, and eventually found their eternal resting-place in the endowments they themselves had built. One of the most treasured sacral buildings of the Nemanjic era is the Sopocani Monastery, and endowment of King Uros, who reigned in the 13th century. The mural at Sopocani ranks among the most magnificent and beautiful in European medieval art. The monumentality of Sopocani frescoes, the harmony of colors present, and the refinement of expression on the faces of the figures all contributed to its being granted a place on UNESCO’s World Heritage list. The most famous frescoes of the central section of the church are those of the Assumption of the Most Holy Mother of God, the Descent into Hades, and the individual figures of the Saints. Apart from the architecture, painting and applied arts, book publishing was perhaps the most significant – albeit today less visible – thread running through and decisively influencing the spirit of medieval art and culture.
Medieval Serbian books reflect the development of Byzantine greatest culture. All mayor authors of Christian Orthodox books since the schism between the Eastern and Western Churches of 1054 are represented in great number, as are some original texts. Works of the greatest Byzantine Christian authors were translated into Church Slavic. To mention but a few: Basil the Great, Gregory the Theologian, Gregory of Nyssa, Athanasius the Great, Maxim the Confessor, John the Scholastic, etc. Serbian cultural heritage is best represented by books from the collections at the Chilandar Monastery, the Decani Monastery, and the Pec Patriarchate. Written by a master’s hand, these books were also the proving ground of Orthodox Christianity’s lofty achievements in miniature painting.
Mileseva Monastery is another jewel of the Nemanjic period. It was built by King Vladislav in the early 13th century. The church is dedicated to the Ascension of Our Lord, and is one of the most beautiful and gracious sacral buildings. Mileseva’s mural is world-renowned. This church boasts Serbian best-known fresco – a masterpiece of late medieval painting – the White Angel from the scene of the Holy Chrism Bearers at the Tomb of Christ. The figure of the Mother of God, which is part of the composition named “The Annunciation”, stands apart due to its beauty.
The monasteries in the region Kosovo and Metohija are of exceptional value. During the late middle Ages, this region was the center of the Serbian Church and State. The most monumental building in medieval Serbia is the church devoted to Christ the Pantocrator at Decani Monastery, whose construction was initiated by King Stefan Decanski. It was his son, the famous Emperor Stefan Dusan who completed his father’s work during the 13th century. The Decani Church boasts the richest and best-preserved sculpture in the Romanesque-Gothic style: a lavish portal, sculptures, and decorative windows. In addition, the Decani Church frescoes bear witness to the royal origins of the Nemanjic dynasty, and of the founding families. What makes this monastery exceptional is also its treasury, which is the keeper of precious old icons and other objects of superb craftsmanship.
Also noteworthy from among the Kosovo and Metohija monasteries is Gracanica – the monastery church devoted to the Annunciation. It was built by King Milutin in the early 14th century, as an endowment. Gracanica’s architectural structure represents the peak of building mastery in Serbia, following the spirit of Byzantine tradition. However, it also stands apart as a work of harmonious proportions and of extraordinary beauty. Furthermore, the complex of the Pec Patriarchate holds its own too, with its four wonderful churches. The oldest, dedicated to the Holy Apostles, was built in the mid 13th century, while the last, devoted to St. Nicholas, dates back to the first half of the 14th century. The Pec Patriarchate plays a mayor role in the history of Church and State in Serbia. In the very center of Prizren is another pearl of medieval Serbian building mastery – the Church of the Mother of God of Ljevisa. The great builder, King Milutin, had it constructed as an endowment in the early 14th century. The church was designed in the Byzantine style, while its murals belong to the Byzantine Renaissance. Of the frescoes from the oldest layer, The Feasts in Canaan and The Healing of the Blind are particularly noteworthy.
Art historians and medieval art aesthetics specialists have ruled that Russian icons, Byzantine mosaics and Serbian frescoes stand unrivalled in Christian Orthodox art. The renowned, and less known Serbian frescoes are also of outstanding value, not only to Eastern Orthodoxy, but also to European and world art in general. At the root of this beauty lies the artist’s ethic and aesthetic ideal to bring into this world the splendor of the Son of God – Christ.
The beginning of the end of the Serbian medieval state commenced in 1371, when the Serbian army suffered defeat at the hands of the Ottoman Turks during the Battle of the Marica. It was in this battle that the last ruler of the Nemanjic dynasty was killed – Emperor Stefan Uros I. A regional lord, Lazar Hrebeljanovic succeeded in consolidating parts of the Serbian empire. He, like his successors – Despot Stefan Lazarevic and Despot Djuradj Brankovic – continued the thriving tradition of Serbian rulers and noblemen of setting up endowments. The center of the Serbian State shifted to the central and northern parts of the country. Despite facing an unrelenting Turkish military threat, the country developed culturally and spiritually. It was during this era – which lasted for almost a century – that many original works of exceptional quality were created. The style of this epoch has some common characteristics, and was termed the Morava School. Morava style architecture had elements of the Greek trefoil base, specific facades were built alternately of stone and brick, and it boasted examples of Romanesque decorative plastics. Churches in the Morava style were pronouncedly decorative and vivid, while at the same time revealing an undisturbed harmony. One of the first edifices of the new Morava style architecture is the Lazarica Church, built in Krusevac, the new capital of Prince Lazar Hrebeljanovic. The most beautiful monasteries of this epoch and style are Ravanica, Kalenic, Ljubostinja, Manasija and Naupara.
A decisive spiritual influence during this period was exerted by Hesychasm, pointing out prayer as the road to sanctity. For hesychasts, the motive of Christ’s mystical Transfiguration on Mount Tabor, and the motive of Holy Warriors were of singular importance. The essence and climax of Orthodox Christian religious mystique is transfiguration by way of the Divine Light. The frescoes of this period strongly advocate these ideas, which also reflected on both the motives and on the specific style, characterized by a unique transparency and an uncanny mystique of colors. It was under the influence of hesychasm that the frescoes of the Kalenic Monastery were painted, representing the highest achievement in wall painting of this period. Of the frescoes from this period, we single out that form the Monastery of the Church of the Holy Trinity in Manasija. This period, in which people lived and worked under conditions that were out of the ordinary, immediately precedes the definitive fall of the Serbian medieval state in 1456. It appears that this epoch – although under continual threat and unrelenting pressure form the Turkish military – accumulated the old and created new values that served as the driving force, lending vitality to Serbian culture so that it would survive the long period of Turkish occupation in the centuries follow. A conquered people, without a state or a military, drew its strength from its faith and its Church, as this was the sole remaining organized institution. This is the reason why monasteries were of singular importance, as they sustained the spark of spirituality that enabled the Serbian people to definitively rid itself of Turkish occupation in the 19th century. Time spent under the Turkish occupation was unequaled in its hardship. Even in such circumstances, new churches and monasteries were built, and those destroyed were restored. A large number of them were built in the second half of the 16th century, and in the early 17th century. The founders of these monasteries were no longer rulers or the nobility, but priests and ordinary people – mostly craftsmen and merchants. Tronosa Monastery, and Blagovestenja Monastery, located in the Ovcar-Kablar Canyon, is both examples of such monasteries. In memory of the golden age of Serbian building monastery, the monastery churches were built using as examples the oldest churches of the Raska School.
There is literally not a single monastery that has not suffered minor or extensive devastation. Orthodox Christian churches were frequently turned into Moslem houses of prayer. For example, the Church of the Mother of God of Ljevise in Prizren was converted into a mosque, and its frescoes covered with plaster for centuries. Churches were turned into stables and storerooms for gunpowder. Roofless, they were exposed to the elements, torched, their most valuable items looted and lost forever. The cult of holy relics – the veneration of the earthly remains of rulers and saints – is very strong in Serbian tradition. One of the greatest cults was the cult of the relics of St. Sava, and undoubtedly the most tragic loss occurred in the late 16th century when the Ottoman conquerors burned this holiest of Serbian holies. During the centuries of occupation, a part of the Serbian population migrated northward in waves. Their destination was the Pannonian plain. Imbued with strong religious spirit, the fleeing monks, priests and Serbian refugees built a large number of monasteries and churches in this region. An Orthodox Christian missionary center was set up in what is today the northern province of Vojvodina, to preserve religion and strengthen the national spirit. The monasteries and churches of Vojvodina are a specific world that transmitted old patterns, blending them with the styles of the new age. The most numerous colonies were created on Mt. Fruska Gora, where, according to some records, there were as many as 35 monasteries. A total of 17 are still standing in this region.
Uprooted from their ancestral lands, the Serbian people began creating lore about the founding of the monasteries on Mt. Fruska Gora. In these legends, the illustrious Serbian rulers of old were identified as monastery founders. There is a tradition, according to which the Vrdnik Monastery was founded by Serbian Prince Lazar. Despot Djuradj Brankovic – the last of the Serbian rulers – was said to have founded the Staro and Novo Hopovo Monasteries., as well as Fenek and Krusedol. As tradition has it, there actually may be some traces of historical proof to support these claims, but all these romanticized stories testify more to an overwhelming desire to establish connections with a distant and glorious past, thus enhancing the spirit of an exiled and conquered Serbian people. Documented history offers evidence of the existence of a large number of Orthodox Christian monasteries in Vojvodina in the late 15th and early 16th centuries. As regards architectural style, it is not easy to pick out all the influences contributing to the present day appearance of monasteries in Vojvodina and on Fruska Gora. In the beginning, most of the monasteries were built after models of the Morava and Raska Schools, but the spirit of the Baroque effected a strong influence in the 18th century, resulting in a blend that may best be seen in the tall Baroque church steeples subsequently built next to the original churches. A strong impact on church paintings and applied arts was also made by the Baroque and Neo-classicist styles.
Pokajnica Church, which was built as a token of repentance for the assassination of Karadjordje – the leader of the First Serbian Uprising – is of historical interest. It is an extraordinary example of the style of log-cabin churches, of which there are many throughout Serbia. The St. George Church at Oplenac was the endowment and mausoleum of the Karadjordjevic dynasty. Copies of all the most beautiful frescoes of Serbian medieval painting are displayed as mosaics in this church. From the artistic point of few, the most significant monasteries and churches were built during the time of the Nemanjic dynasty (12th – 14th centuries), while the other important period was the reign Prince Lazar and his descries. Up until the 19th century, monasteries – both old and new – were the only educational institutions. During the Ottoman occupation, it was they who safeguarded the spirit and memory essential to preserving the Serbian religious heritage, as well as meeting the challenges of the new age. Despite the occupation, most monasteries functioned in continuity, and today there are in excess of 200 of them in Serbia. By presenting the monasteries of Serbia, Serbia present most precious cultural monuments, as well as the turbulent history of the Serbian people.
Monasteries are the fruit of a specific monastic spirit, rooted in medieval religiosity. They were – and remain today – small social communities profoundly devoted to the quest for God, and to special Christian aims. The center of Orthodox Christian monastery is the church (known as the “temple”), where religious services are performed. The most beautiful works of architecture, painting and applied arts are generally associated with the church area, as it is the focal point of daily life. However, it is the beauty of the monastery facilities – too frequently surrounded by massive walls – which invite admiration as well. Monasteries were built on the most picturesque sites, on mayor routes, and almost always near rivers and springs, so that pilgrimage to these holy sites offers travelers the unique pleasure of enjoying nature. The church, quest quarters, library, treasury, and refectory all form a circle within this mystical and divinely-inspired world.
The story about Serbian monasteries begins with the oldest Christian church – St Peter’s Church, in what is today southwestern Serbia. It is believed that the church was built sometime in the 6th or 7th centuries, and it is an established fact that it was an important spiritual center at the time of Stefan Nemanja (12th century), the founder of the illustrious Serbian Nemanjic dynasty. The most beautiful and precious monasteries were built while this dynasty was in power, so that these stylistically specific monasteries and the region in which most of them are located bear a common name – they are known as monuments of the Raska School. The most significant endowment of Stefan Nemanja is the Studenica monastery. In terms of architecture, this monastery – like the majority of others from this area – has features of the Adriatic Littoral Building School. Serbian monasteries bear witness to the interlacing of the distinctly beautiful Eastern and Western styles, and they also reflect the harmony of Byzantine and Western Christian art. The architecture of the Studenica Monastery Church is one of the most beautiful examples of this congruity. Paintings in the interior of the Church of the Mother of God also bear witness to supreme artistic achievements. One of the most famous frescoes is the Crucifixion – a monumental and moving composition. The Studenica monastery is a magnificent example of Serbian building and painting mastery, resulting in the fact that it has been listed as one of UNESCO’s monuments of World Heritage.
Medieval Serbian monasteries are an extraordinary example of the synthesis of the Byzantine and Mediterranean religious cultures. Nonetheless, the Byzantine culture had a decisive influence, which continued on as part of Serbian culture even after the decline and definitive fall of the Byzantine State. The chief spiritual source of medieval Serbian culture is Chilandar Monastery (dating from 12th century) located on Mt Athos in modern day Greece. The founders of Chilandar exerted a crucial influence on all areas of religious, political and cultural life in medieval Serbia.
The period between the 12th century and the latter half of the 14th century was an age in which the Serbian state flourished and became strong. The reigning Nemanjic family, and later patrician families, devoted great attention to setting up endowments. Deeply devoted to Christianity, and by way of building churches and monasteries, they spread the faith among the people, encouraged literacy and learning, enhanced Church organization, and eventually found their eternal resting-place in the endowments they themselves had built. One of the most treasured sacral buildings of the Nemanjic era is the Sopocani Monastery, and endowment of King Uros, who reigned in the 13th century. The mural at Sopocani ranks among the most magnificent and beautiful in European medieval art. The monumentality of Sopocani frescoes, the harmony of colors present, and the refinement of expression on the faces of the figures all contributed to its being granted a place on UNESCO’s World Heritage list. The most famous frescoes of the central section of the church are those of the Assumption of the Most Holy Mother of God, the Descent into Hades, and the individual figures of the Saints. Apart from the architecture, painting and applied arts, book publishing was perhaps the most significant – albeit today less visible – thread running through and decisively influencing the spirit of medieval art and culture.
Medieval Serbian books reflect the development of Byzantine greatest culture. All mayor authors of Christian Orthodox books since the schism between the Eastern and Western Churches of 1054 are represented in great number, as are some original texts. Works of the greatest Byzantine Christian authors were translated into Church Slavic. To mention but a few: Basil the Great, Gregory the Theologian, Gregory of Nyssa, Athanasius the Great, Maxim the Confessor, John the Scholastic, etc. Serbian cultural heritage is best represented by books from the collections at the Chilandar Monastery, the Decani Monastery, and the Pec Patriarchate. Written by a master’s hand, these books were also the proving ground of Orthodox Christianity’s lofty achievements in miniature painting.
Mileseva Monastery is another jewel of the Nemanjic period. It was built by King Vladislav in the early 13th century. The church is dedicated to the Ascension of Our Lord, and is one of the most beautiful and gracious sacral buildings. Mileseva’s mural is world-renowned. This church boasts Serbian best-known fresco – a masterpiece of late medieval painting – the White Angel from the scene of the Holy Chrism Bearers at the Tomb of Christ. The figure of the Mother of God, which is part of the composition named “The Annunciation”, stands apart due to its beauty.
The monasteries in the region Kosovo and Metohija are of exceptional value. During the late middle Ages, this region was the center of the Serbian Church and State. The most monumental building in medieval Serbia is the church devoted to Christ the Pantocrator at Decani Monastery, whose construction was initiated by King Stefan Decanski. It was his son, the famous Emperor Stefan Dusan who completed his father’s work during the 13th century. The Decani Church boasts the richest and best-preserved sculpture in the Romanesque-Gothic style: a lavish portal, sculptures, and decorative windows. In addition, the Decani Church frescoes bear witness to the royal origins of the Nemanjic dynasty, and of the founding families. What makes this monastery exceptional is also its treasury, which is the keeper of precious old icons and other objects of superb craftsmanship.
Also noteworthy from among the Kosovo and Metohija monasteries is Gracanica – the monastery church devoted to the Annunciation. It was built by King Milutin in the early 14th century, as an endowment. Gracanica’s architectural structure represents the peak of building mastery in Serbia, following the spirit of Byzantine tradition. However, it also stands apart as a work of harmonious proportions and of extraordinary beauty. Furthermore, the complex of the Pec Patriarchate holds its own too, with its four wonderful churches. The oldest, dedicated to the Holy Apostles, was built in the mid 13th century, while the last, devoted to St. Nicholas, dates back to the first half of the 14th century. The Pec Patriarchate plays a mayor role in the history of Church and State in Serbia. In the very center of Prizren is another pearl of medieval Serbian building mastery – the Church of the Mother of God of Ljevisa. The great builder, King Milutin, had it constructed as an endowment in the early 14th century. The church was designed in the Byzantine style, while its murals belong to the Byzantine Renaissance. Of the frescoes from the oldest layer, The Feasts in Canaan and The Healing of the Blind are particularly noteworthy.
Art historians and medieval art aesthetics specialists have ruled that Russian icons, Byzantine mosaics and Serbian frescoes stand unrivalled in Christian Orthodox art. The renowned, and less known Serbian frescoes are also of outstanding value, not only to Eastern Orthodoxy, but also to European and world art in general. At the root of this beauty lies the artist’s ethic and aesthetic ideal to bring into this world the splendor of the Son of God – Christ.
The beginning of the end of the Serbian medieval state commenced in 1371, when the Serbian army suffered defeat at the hands of the Ottoman Turks during the Battle of the Marica. It was in this battle that the last ruler of the Nemanjic dynasty was killed – Emperor Stefan Uros I. A regional lord, Lazar Hrebeljanovic succeeded in consolidating parts of the Serbian empire. He, like his successors – Despot Stefan Lazarevic and Despot Djuradj Brankovic – continued the thriving tradition of Serbian rulers and noblemen of setting up endowments. The center of the Serbian State shifted to the central and northern parts of the country. Despite facing an unrelenting Turkish military threat, the country developed culturally and spiritually. It was during this era – which lasted for almost a century – that many original works of exceptional quality were created. The style of this epoch has some common characteristics, and was termed the Morava School. Morava style architecture had elements of the Greek trefoil base, specific facades were built alternately of stone and brick, and it boasted examples of Romanesque decorative plastics. Churches in the Morava style were pronouncedly decorative and vivid, while at the same time revealing an undisturbed harmony. One of the first edifices of the new Morava style architecture is the Lazarica Church, built in Krusevac, the new capital of Prince Lazar Hrebeljanovic. The most beautiful monasteries of this epoch and style are Ravanica, Kalenic, Ljubostinja, Manasija and Naupara.
A decisive spiritual influence during this period was exerted by Hesychasm, pointing out prayer as the road to sanctity. For hesychasts, the motive of Christ’s mystical Transfiguration on Mount Tabor, and the motive of Holy Warriors were of singular importance. The essence and climax of Orthodox Christian religious mystique is transfiguration by way of the Divine Light. The frescoes of this period strongly advocate these ideas, which also reflected on both the motives and on the specific style, characterized by a unique transparency and an uncanny mystique of colors. It was under the influence of hesychasm that the frescoes of the Kalenic Monastery were painted, representing the highest achievement in wall painting of this period. Of the frescoes from this period, we single out that form the Monastery of the Church of the Holy Trinity in Manasija. This period, in which people lived and worked under conditions that were out of the ordinary, immediately precedes the definitive fall of the Serbian medieval state in 1456. It appears that this epoch – although under continual threat and unrelenting pressure form the Turkish military – accumulated the old and created new values that served as the driving force, lending vitality to Serbian culture so that it would survive the long period of Turkish occupation in the centuries follow. A conquered people, without a state or a military, drew its strength from its faith and its Church, as this was the sole remaining organized institution. This is the reason why monasteries were of singular importance, as they sustained the spark of spirituality that enabled the Serbian people to definitively rid itself of Turkish occupation in the 19th century. Time spent under the Turkish occupation was unequaled in its hardship. Even in such circumstances, new churches and monasteries were built, and those destroyed were restored. A large number of them were built in the second half of the 16th century, and in the early 17th century. The founders of these monasteries were no longer rulers or the nobility, but priests and ordinary people – mostly craftsmen and merchants. Tronosa Monastery, and Blagovestenja Monastery, located in the Ovcar-Kablar Canyon, is both examples of such monasteries. In memory of the golden age of Serbian building monastery, the monastery churches were built using as examples the oldest churches of the Raska School.
There is literally not a single monastery that has not suffered minor or extensive devastation. Orthodox Christian churches were frequently turned into Moslem houses of prayer. For example, the Church of the Mother of God of Ljevise in Prizren was converted into a mosque, and its frescoes covered with plaster for centuries. Churches were turned into stables and storerooms for gunpowder. Roofless, they were exposed to the elements, torched, their most valuable items looted and lost forever. The cult of holy relics – the veneration of the earthly remains of rulers and saints – is very strong in Serbian tradition. One of the greatest cults was the cult of the relics of St. Sava, and undoubtedly the most tragic loss occurred in the late 16th century when the Ottoman conquerors burned this holiest of Serbian holies. During the centuries of occupation, a part of the Serbian population migrated northward in waves. Their destination was the Pannonian plain. Imbued with strong religious spirit, the fleeing monks, priests and Serbian refugees built a large number of monasteries and churches in this region. An Orthodox Christian missionary center was set up in what is today the northern province of Vojvodina, to preserve religion and strengthen the national spirit. The monasteries and churches of Vojvodina are a specific world that transmitted old patterns, blending them with the styles of the new age. The most numerous colonies were created on Mt. Fruska Gora, where, according to some records, there were as many as 35 monasteries. A total of 17 are still standing in this region.
Uprooted from their ancestral lands, the Serbian people began creating lore about the founding of the monasteries on Mt. Fruska Gora. In these legends, the illustrious Serbian rulers of old were identified as monastery founders. There is a tradition, according to which the Vrdnik Monastery was founded by Serbian Prince Lazar. Despot Djuradj Brankovic – the last of the Serbian rulers – was said to have founded the Staro and Novo Hopovo Monasteries., as well as Fenek and Krusedol. As tradition has it, there actually may be some traces of historical proof to support these claims, but all these romanticized stories testify more to an overwhelming desire to establish connections with a distant and glorious past, thus enhancing the spirit of an exiled and conquered Serbian people. Documented history offers evidence of the existence of a large number of Orthodox Christian monasteries in Vojvodina in the late 15th and early 16th centuries. As regards architectural style, it is not easy to pick out all the influences contributing to the present day appearance of monasteries in Vojvodina and on Fruska Gora. In the beginning, most of the monasteries were built after models of the Morava and Raska Schools, but the spirit of the Baroque effected a strong influence in the 18th century, resulting in a blend that may best be seen in the tall Baroque church steeples subsequently built next to the original churches. A strong impact on church paintings and applied arts was also made by the Baroque and Neo-classicist styles.
Pokajnica Church, which was built as a token of repentance for the assassination of Karadjordje – the leader of the First Serbian Uprising – is of historical interest. It is an extraordinary example of the style of log-cabin churches, of which there are many throughout Serbia. The St. George Church at Oplenac was the endowment and mausoleum of the Karadjordjevic dynasty. Copies of all the most beautiful frescoes of Serbian medieval painting are displayed as mosaics in this church. From the artistic point of few, the most significant monasteries and churches were built during the time of the Nemanjic dynasty (12th – 14th centuries), while the other important period was the reign Prince Lazar and his descries. Up until the 19th century, monasteries – both old and new – were the only educational institutions. During the Ottoman occupation, it was they who safeguarded the spirit and memory essential to preserving the Serbian religious heritage, as well as meeting the challenges of the new age. Despite the occupation, most monasteries functioned in continuity, and today there are in excess of 200 of them in Serbia. By presenting the monasteries of Serbia, Serbia present most precious cultural monuments, as well as the turbulent history of the Serbian people.
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